Beowulf Epic Hero Essay - 880 Words

Analysis of Beowulf as an Epic Hero The definition of a hero from ancient times to present day has evolved greatly, but they often still possess characteristics synonymous across all cultures and timespans. In modern times, they are often thought of as role models for others to live up to, and are generally humble, honest, and not afraid to put others in front of themselves. In ancient times, more emphasis was put on strength and fearlessness, and epic heroes were often saviors of the land, sent down to Earth in its time of need by God’s hand. Beowulf, the main character in the epic poem Beowulf, is blessed with superhuman strength, a magical weapon only he can yield, as well as a fierce sense of loyalty to his people and an obligation†¦show more content†¦419-424). These last words truly wrap up the character of Beowulf as the courageous and loyal hero he is, knowing that his actions will have made his name memorable for ages to come. The epic poem, Beowulf, clearly demonstrates the Anglo-Saxon ideals of bravery and loyalty, which also happen to be traits that make Beowulf an epic hero, as well as possessing a magical weapon and wanting his legacy to live on. Although these traits were valued much more long ago, devotion, strength, and courage are still important to many of us today. This text, as it was one of the first written stories that has survived to this day, gives us an insight into what was valued back in that time period, and what people looked up to in a hero. Despite some differences, there are many similarities between the ancient Anglo-Saxon hero and the modern hero, making Beowulf relevant to thisShow MoreRelated Epic of Beowulf Essay - Beowulf as Epic Hero844 Words   |  4 PagesBeowulf as Epic Hero Epic heroes usually exemplify the character traits most admired in their societies, and Beowulf is no exception.   Beowulf is set in the Anglo-Saxon society, a time when war was rampant among the many peoples trying to take over the different kingdoms of England.   In this dangerous, violent time people lived in constant peril and jeopardy.   These conditions only allowed people of great bravery to survive and men of outstanding courage were admired the populous.   TheseRead More Beowulf - An Epic Hero Essay710 Words   |  3 PagesBeowulf An Epic Hero Beowulf: An Epic Hero Being a hero can be defined many different ways. Several qualities like courage, respect, and strength can define heroism. A hero is noted for his or her actions for being brave, powerful, and acting with honor. In the epic poem, Beowulf, the main character Beowulf shows all of these characteristics by defending the Danish king, Hrothgar, and his people. He is a true hero by honoring his country and exerting his power and strength to protect othersRead More Beowulf As An Epic Hero Essay971 Words   |  4 Pages Every epic hero possesses certain heroic characteristics. Beowulf, like other epic heroes, possesses the following heroic qualities: epic heroes are superhuman types of beings. They have a noble birth and show great bravery. They display great intelligence and resourcefulness. They have a reverence for G-d and for the values of their society. They are dominant male figures and suffer severe pain, but in the end, they conquer evil (Vivone 9/27/99). 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However, his humanity is exposed by his death. Heroes all share the characteristic of their willingness to die in their effort to accomplish their heroic act, thus making the actRead MoreEssay on Beowulf is an Epic Hero1415 Words   |  6 Pages Epic battles, terrifying monsters, extraordinary strength, and great leadership; these characteristics and encounters are what make up the epic hero that is Beowulf. The heroism exemplified by Beowulf is defined by many different qualities. Beowulf is truly a hero because he is willing to put himself at great risk for the greater good. Beowulfs defeats of Grendel and Grendels mother establish him as a hero because he did it to save his people, rather than for his own glory. Beowulf isRead More Beowulf is an Epic Hero Essay469 Words   |  2 PagesEvery epic hero possesses certain heroic characteristics. The epic poem Beowulf describes the most heroic man of the Anglo-Saxon times. Beowulf is the hero. 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InRead MoreEssay on Beowulf - Profile Of An Epic Hero586 Words   |  3 Pagesmemory, but are lost in time, and some write them down to be remembered forever as a part of history. Beowulf is one such story that has been mysteriously remembered for many centuries. I’ve very much enjoyed reading Beowulf. However, since this story has been around for so long many people have added, reduced, or omitted bits and pieces of the story. In other words, it has become an almost epic legend, never knowing if it was real or if it is rumor. And like any rumor being told to others, the storyRead MoreBeowulf: Epic Hero Essay example961 Words   |  4 PagesBeowulf: Epic Hero An epic hero, an Anglo-Saxon hero, a modern-day hero; A hero is is often defined by certain qualities, looked upon traits. We have heroes amongst our lives everyday, from saving a life to simply helping someone out. In the epic poem, â€Å"Beowulf†, Beowulf was the most heroic man of the Anglo-Saxon times. 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Gentiles, And Galileo Galileo A Comparison Of The...

Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics, Thomas Aquinas in Summa on Gentiles, and Galileo Galilei in â€Å"Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina† all touch upon the notion of reason. Although all three authors have different interpretations of the nature of reason, they all impose limitations on utilizing reason to understand theology. These limitations are ultimately of two natures: a limitation on the ability of human reasoning and whether a non-rational component is necessary, or a limitation of the subject matter. Furthermore, the goals in utilizing reason appear to differ amongst the authors. While Aristotle considers reason as a method of imitating God and a sufficient tool to attain a likeness of God, both Galileo and Aquinas view reason as a†¦show more content†¦The bible â€Å"is not chained in every expression to conditions as strict† and â€Å"differ[s] from the absolute truth as far as the bare meaning of the words is concerned†¦to be accommodated to the understanding of every man† (Galileo 162-163). Since the true meaning of the words must be extracted from the Bible, there is an inherent uncertainty that must be illuminated with the truth of science. The only way to ascertain the true meaning of Scripture is through referring to scientific conclusions, â€Å"the physical conclusions which manifest sense and necessary demonstrations have previously made certain† (Galileo 246-247). According to Galileo, therefore, â€Å"we ought to utilize [any certainties in physics] as the most appropriate aids in the true exposition of the Bible† as â€Å"these must be concordant with demonstrated truths† (Galileo 175-177). Demonstrated proofs are not only necessary for reaching scientific conclusions, but are also critical in the interpretation of theological concepts. Galileo’s interpretation of reason, then, is based completely upon demonstrations and is a form of purely rational thought. Aquinas’ e valuation of reason appears similar to that of Galileo at first glance, but is ultimately of a different nature. Aquinas argues that â€Å"things that are not perceived by the senses cannot be grasped by the human intellect except in so far as knowledge of them is gathered from the senses† (13-14). As

Bureaucracy and Democracy Free Essays

Bureaucracy and Democracy Assuming that the court’s interpretation of the law was accurate, do you believe that the state’s power to regulate in these matters should outweigh the federal government’s right to do so? What, if anything, should be done? No I do not think the state’s power to regulate in these matters should outweigh the federal government. Independent Agencies help execute policy or provide special services. Independent Agencies also exist outside of the departments of the executive branch and have three separate branches: Executive – President of the United States, esponsible for administering and enforcing the laws of government Legislative – Congress responsible for the creation of law Judicial – Supreme Court responsible for administering Justice, resolving disputes, and interpreting the law. We will write a custom essay sample on Bureaucracy and Democracy or any similar topic only for you Order Now This system establishes a strong central government, while insuring a balance of power. Agencies can be characterized as being either executive agencies or independent agencies. How do they differ and, from your standpoint, which is preferable in terms of maintaining agency focus and controlling the actions of the agency? Independent agencies are those that exist outside of the departments of the executive branch, executive agencies are not How to cite Bureaucracy and Democracy, Papers

I have been asked to analyse and compare the way Shakespeare has portrayed the reactions of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Essay Example For Students

I have been asked to analyse and compare the way Shakespeare has portrayed the reactions of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Essay I have been asked to analyse and compare the way Shakespeare has portrayed the reactions of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth to the murder of King Duncan. For this I will be using act 2 scene 2 and act 1 scene 5 as well as quotes from other scenes in the play. I will start with analysis, first of Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth has always been cold and calculating in previous scenes. A good example of how Shakespeare portrayed Lady Macbeths character is in act one scene five. Here I have quoted her speech from this scene The raven himself is horse That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ You shall be what you have been promised. Yet Im worried about your nature. You are too tender hearted to take short cuts. You want greatness. You are not without ambition. But you lack the ruthlessness thats needed Come home quickly, so that I can inspire you with my passion. My brave words will overcome the scruples standing between you and the golden circle Here she talks about Duncans entrance into Macbeths castle as being fatal. She then talks about Macbeths wishes to become king but she also talks about his lack of courage to kill Duncan so that he may rise to the throne. She then tells the audience about how she will attempt to talk Macbeth into murdering Duncan. Come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, and fill me from the crown to the toe-top full of direst cruelty! Make thick my blood Here she is starting to ask the spirits to take away her feelings of compassion Unsex me here she is asking for her womanly qualities or weaknesses to be removed. By this she means feelings of remorse, pity, guilt and compassion. This next part is spoken as though said to Macbeth. He thats coming serve the thoughts of mortals: rid me of the natural tenderness of my sex, and fill me from head to toe with direst cruelty! Thicken my blood. Make me remorseless, so that no feelings of conscience can alter my foul plans, nor stand in the way of what must be done. Come to my womans breasts and turn my milk sour, you abettors of murder, wherever you lurk invisible, awaiting evil deeds! Come, dark night, and shroud yourself in the blackest smoke of hell, so that my sharp knife wont see the wound it makes, nor heaven peeping through the blanket of darkness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" cry Stop! Stop! Here she is again asking the spirits to remove her softness Rid me of the natural tenderness of my sex. She repeats the part about shrouding herself in shadows to conceal what she is going to do from heaven. Maybe she is talking about how she will make Macbeth murder Duncan rather than do the deed herself. Another one of Lady Macbeths speeches which depicts the  character Shakespeare intended her to be is from act one, scene seven. I have given suck, and know how tender tis t love the babe that milks me à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" I would while it was smiling in my face Have plucked my nipple from his boneless gums. And dashed the brains out. Had I so sworn to you Have done to this. Here she is comparing her womanliness to her husbands manliness. Shakespeare uses quite shocking imagery in Lady Macbeths speech here to further depict her ruthlessness. Now I have shown a couple of examples of the character of Lady Macbeth I will continue onto my analysis of the murder scene. Lady Macbeth is nervous, paranoid as she waits for Macbeth to return after she has sent him to perform the murder. Hark! Peace! It was the owl that shriekd, the fatal bellman, Which gives the sternst good-night. He is about it: Shes jumpy. The sound of the owls hoot scares her. Lady Macbeth is imagining her husband killing Duncan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" He is about it. She then hears Macbeth shouting something from outside the room. She is then very afraid. Alack! I am afraid they have awakd, And tis not done; the attempt and not the deed Confounds us. Hark! I laid their daggers ready; He could not miss em. Had he not resembled My father as he slept, I had donet. Here she worries about getting caught. We also see a side of Lady Macbeth which has not been shown before. She is vulnerable, nervous and not at all like her former self. She also shows some emotion Had he not resembled my father as he slept, I had donet. She could not have performed the awful deed herself as it would have felt like she was murdering her father. William Shakespeare Argumentative EssayShe is thinking about hell. She is now afraid of damnation, as Macbeth was in act 2, scene 2. Earlier she had asked evil spirits to assist her and now she is terrified of hell. She is remembering mocking Macbeth. Maybe now she feels bad for pushing him into the first murder. The thane of fife had a wife: where is she now? No more o that, my lord, no more o that: you mar with all this starting. She is thinking about McDuffs wife. Macbeth no longer talked with Lady Macbeth about his plans after Duncans murder. She is supposed to be unaware of these murders. She is annoyed at Macbeth for his continued killing and she has realised that she no longer has power over him. Its almost as if shes asking him to stop. Heres the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes Of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! Oh! Oh! Again she is showing how haunted she is by the blood on her hands. This speech is very similar to Macbeths earlier Multitudinous seas incarnadine speech. Banquos buried; He cannot come out on s grave. This is a reference to the earlier ghost scene when Macbeth saw Banquos ghost at the banquet after he had him killed. Lady Macbeths descent into madness has taken longer than Macbeths and her guilt is expressing itself in a much more subconscious way than Macbeths did. Earlier she talked about a little water clearing them of the guilt but now she is haunted and terrorised by what they did. Lady Macbeth and her husband appear to have switched roles with their expressions of their guilt. While Macbeth appears to feel nothing and continues to murder Lady Macbeth is slowly going mad. Shakespeare tries to evoke feelings of pity in the audience for Lady Macbeth. The words this little hand are an example of this. Macbeth expresses his guilt in a conscious, public way, his continued killings are the main sign he has been driven  mad by guilt. Lady Macbeth on the other hand shows her guilt in a private way. Her sleepwalking is a subconscious expression of her innermost tormented feelings. This is her sign of madness. Lady Macbeths madness has also taken longer to manifest itself. Macbeths guilt was immediate but Lady Macbeth has taken several scenes to show hers. Macbeth spoke about no longer being able to sleep in the murder scene but several scenes later we see it is in fact Lady Macbeths sleep which is disturbed. This could be Shakespeare trying to show us how Lady Macbeth was a lot more open to suggestions that she ever appeared to be before the murder scene, when she was a very cold, hard woman who used a lot of shocking imagery and was really quite a scary person. Act 5 scene 1 is a performance of Lady Macbeths guilt. Until this time she had suppressed her feelings. She even asked the spirits to take away her feelings of compassion so she would feel no guilt. It would appear that this had no effect and she feels terrible and that manifests itself in her sleepwalking and talking. Macbeth was originally paralysed by his guilt and was unable to even wash his hands clean of the blood without Lady Macbeths instructions to do so. Later on Macbeth seems to have taken control to the extent where he is continuing to kill without first talking with Lady Macbeth about it. The blood symbolises the guilt felt by both plotters. Macbeth was earlier scorned by his wife for his guilty feelings. Lady Macbeths fragmented language in act 5 scene 1 makes her harder to understand than she had been in previous appearances. I believe that Shakespeare is using her language to show her mental breakdown. Macbeths guilt was shown then suppressed and the opposite is true for Lady Macbeth. As the play continues Lady Macbeths madness gets to the point where she can no longer live with her guilt and she eventually commits suicide. Macbeth and his allies prepare for battle with McDuff. After Lady Macbeths death a messenger informs Macbeth that Birnam Wood à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Malcolms army is approaching. The battle begins and in the final showdown McDuff kills Macbeth and Malcolm is hailed as the new king. In both the case of Macbeth and the case of Lady Macbeth their guilt eventually killed them but in different ways. While Lady Macbeth was driven mad by her guilt and killed herself, Macbeth went on a killing frenzy from his guilt and was eventually killed by someone who was his friend in the beginning when he went too far. In conclusion, while Macbeth and Lady Macbeth may have shown their reactions to Duncans murder in totally different ways both of them got their comeuppance eventually.

Effects of TV and Other Medias on Child Development

Free Essays on Sewage Treatment Facilities

Compliance Assessment of Low Volume of Effluent Discharge Sewage Treatment Facilities with the Municipal Sewage Regulation (MSR) of the Environmental Management Act Sarah Brown, Environmental Quality Co-op Table of Contents 1 Executive Summary 1 2 Introduction 3 3 Materials and Methods 5 4 Compliance Review Results 7 4.1. Reporting requirements 7 4.2. Effluent Quality 9 4.2.1. Total 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand 9 4.2.2 Total Suspended Solids 13 4.2.3 Fecal Coliform 14 4.2.4 Turbidity 16 4.2.5 Nitrogen 19 4.3 Operator Certification 24 5 Discussion and recommendations 25 5.1. Compliance Summary 25 5.2. Follow-up and Conclusion 32 6 References 33 7 Appendices a Appendix A: Glossary and List of Symbols a Appendix C: List of Units e Appendix D: f Schedule 3 - Standards for Discharges to Water f Appendix D.A: Schedule 3 - Explanatory Notes h Schedule 4 - Standards for Discharges into Ground j Appendix D.B: Schedule 4 - Explanatory Notes m Appendix E: Schedule 6 - Monitoring Requirements (1)(2) o Appendix F: Section 22 - Operator qualifications and certification s Appendix G: Section 28 - Reporting requirements u Appendix H – Template Letters w Template letter #1 – July 2004 Audit w Template letter #2 – July 2004 Audit y Template letter #3 – July 2004 Audit z Template Letter #1 – December 2003 aa Template Letter #2 – December 2003 bb List of Figures Figure 1 Effluent monitoring data submission compliance ratio with Section 28 and Schedule 6. (Displays the contribution of data submission to the overall compliance, emphasising data submission in second pie graph.) 8 Figure 2 Effluent quality, compliance ratio with Schedule 4. (Displays the contribution of discharge monitoring to the overall compliance, emphasising effluent quality in second pie graph.) 9 Figure 3 Sample set of effluent monitoring data for BOD5 submitted during July 2004 audit. 11 Figur... Free Essays on Sewage Treatment Facilities Free Essays on Sewage Treatment Facilities Compliance Assessment of Low Volume of Effluent Discharge Sewage Treatment Facilities with the Municipal Sewage Regulation (MSR) of the Environmental Management Act Sarah Brown, Environmental Quality Co-op Table of Contents 1 Executive Summary 1 2 Introduction 3 3 Materials and Methods 5 4 Compliance Review Results 7 4.1. Reporting requirements 7 4.2. Effluent Quality 9 4.2.1. Total 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand 9 4.2.2 Total Suspended Solids 13 4.2.3 Fecal Coliform 14 4.2.4 Turbidity 16 4.2.5 Nitrogen 19 4.3 Operator Certification 24 5 Discussion and recommendations 25 5.1. Compliance Summary 25 5.2. Follow-up and Conclusion 32 6 References 33 7 Appendices a Appendix A: Glossary and List of Symbols a Appendix C: List of Units e Appendix D: f Schedule 3 - Standards for Discharges to Water f Appendix D.A: Schedule 3 - Explanatory Notes h Schedule 4 - Standards for Discharges into Ground j Appendix D.B: Schedule 4 - Explanatory Notes m Appendix E: Schedule 6 - Monitoring Requirements (1)(2) o Appendix F: Section 22 - Operator qualifications and certification s Appendix G: Section 28 - Reporting requirements u Appendix H – Template Letters w Template letter #1 – July 2004 Audit w Template letter #2 – July 2004 Audit y Template letter #3 – July 2004 Audit z Template Letter #1 – December 2003 aa Template Letter #2 – December 2003 bb List of Figures Figure 1 Effluent monitoring data submission compliance ratio with Section 28 and Schedule 6. (Displays the contribution of data submission to the overall compliance, emphasising data submission in second pie graph.) 8 Figure 2 Effluent quality, compliance ratio with Schedule 4. (Displays the contribution of discharge monitoring to the overall compliance, emphasising effluent quality in second pie graph.) 9 Figure 3 Sample set of effluent monitoring data for BOD5 submitted during July 2004 audit. 11 Figur...

The European Parliament has decided to undertake a review of the Essay

The European Parliament has decided to undertake a review of the development of the Preliminary Reference Procedure under Articl - Essay Example Only the Court of Justice is accorded by such power to give preliminary rulings except in cases stated under Articles 275 and 276 TFEU and Article 10 of Protocol (No 36) on Transitional Provisions of the Treaty of Lisbon (OJEU 2008 C 115, p. 322). Legal luminaries explained that the procedure was laid to ensure the effectiveness of the cooperation of the Court of Justice and national courts. It eases the procedural mechanism (a) to ascertain what court has jurisdiction to hear and interpret question of laws with uniformity; (b) provide guidance for national courts in the application of this procedure. The question should also be stated in a legal form clearly, concisely and simply. Information must detail the subject on dispute, findings of factual situation and should be written in a tenor following possible applicable provision of laws with citation of national case-laws with correct references. The national court must provide ample reason which motivated the body to bring the ques tion to the Court of Justice for interpretation or validity as well as the relations of such stipulation to the national provisions. It must also have summary of relevant contentions of parties under such proceedings. The ruling will be rendered by the Court of Justice free of fees or charges. This ruling procedure is solely for the interpretation of statutes, provisions and not about laws application to facts of cases. The process tasked the Court of Justice to simply interpret the meaning of the statutes and provisions of Europian Union Law which will be stated in a formal reply, but the referring court will assume the responsibility to make conclusion from such reply. The Court of Justice will not assume jurisdiction on cases where there is no genuine dispute, question of law apparently is hypothetical or if the national court failed to give factual legal information of the case. Further, under this new provision, as stipulated in Article 267 TFEU, those who can submit a question of law are any of the Member State’s court or tribunal who is aiming at gaining clarified judicial interpretation of a law. The national court may or may not refer a question to the Court of Justice in a preliminary hearing in order to arrive at appropriate understanding of the provisions and therefore help hasten the resolve of an issue brought to its attention with sense of resoluteness. If it’s evident that correct interpretation of the rule of law is present, the question need not be raised to the Court of Justice for legal remedy. It is the role of the national court to provide reasons about the necessity for Court of Justice to give judgment on a question raised—which must be, by the way, contextualized on factual and legal contexts. To reiterate, only new questions of interpretation should be submitted to intentionally draw uniformity of understanding and application of European Union law to cases or when circumstance arise where an existing case-law is not applicable to such set of facts. Critics to this procedure however raised that the procedure seem inapplicable to labor laws because Member States

Club IT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Club IT - Assignment Example For instance, organizations normally make use of a computer based information system known as Decision Support System (DSS) to make quick and valuable business decisions after analysis of data. It is noteworthy that information technology is highly significant for effective operation of every organization and as such, Lisa and Ruben should not relent in their effort to integrate information technology in the operations of Club IT. It is relevant to start by pointing out that despite all the efforts applied in extensive remodeling of the club, Club It will not be in a position to exploit its full potential without embracing information technology. Lisa and Ruben will start the journey towards employing IT in Club IT operations by installing appropriate information system (IS) infrastructure within the organization. The key information system infrastructures include hardware, software, databases, network, procedures, and computer proficient individuals (Rainer and Turban, 2009). Key ha rdware to be acquired by Club IT includes CPUs, monitors, and storage devices, while the software will include application programs that will support the club’s systems. ... By installing effective information system infrastructure, Club IT will stand a better chance of gathering and storing vital information about the clients, which may include favorite drinks, music, or services. Information systems will save Lisa and Ruben a great deal in the sense that they will no longer have to engage in paper work, which is too bulky and tedious. Processing of raw data into finished timely, efficient, and reliable information is supported through information system. For instance, Club IT will find it easy to track sale of drinks from the warehouse and consequently accessing the closing stock at the end of the day without physical count. Lisa and Ruben have several information systems at their disposal to improve the Club’s information technology, data management, and decision-making capabilities. They should start by adopting an integrated inventory system that seeks to harmonize all the operations in the supply chain. However, before adopting the inventory system it is important for Reuben and Lisa to consult inventory system vendors for an advice on various requirements that will adequately meet the needs of the Club. Other key stakeholders to be engaged in the system analysis include sales personnel, storekeepers and their respective executives. An inventory System as a computer system it is developed with a view of managing elementary day-to-day transactions of an organization relating to inventory management starting from the suppliers, warehousing and sales (Kelly, 2010). Club IT is engaged in a number of recurring activities, which include sale of particular type of drinks and movement of stock into and out of the warehouse. It is often very cumbersome to

Contemporary management practise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Contemporary management practise - Essay Example In order to better understand the Ford Market, a Pestle and Swot analysis can be done. As Ford Motors is mostly controlled by the Ford family; the government and outside partners have very little stake over the company. As a result, the company has not been influenced by the increasing volatility of the political market. However, as a result of the taxation policies and political conspiracies, the company is seeing a continuous decline in demand in the European market. One of the factors which might have critical influence on the overall market of Ford in United Kingdom is purchasing power of potential target market. The inflation rate of the economy is low which a good sign for organisations in this sector. In order to match the market requirements, the company can minimise cost structure of its low-end products. Ford has shifted from its traditional advertising mode to a more creative and aggressive campaigning. As consumer spending is increasing and more and more customers are opting for cars, Ford has started expanding its current base of target customers, focussing on college goers as well as women professionals. The advertisements also focus on environment and sustainability in order to build greater brand equity of the company. Rising number of consumers are using internet and this can be a good opportunity for Ford to establish online marketing strategies for its target market (Aharoni and Ramamurti, 2011). The company has launched new economic car variants with major emphasis on factors such as, environmental pollution, car safety and recycling. With changing trends among consumers and industry towards more eco-friendly automobiles, Ford has also started focussing on more economic and fuel efficient engines (Mullins, 2007). One of the major developments in Ford’s growth came from technology. The company has inspired other competitors as well as the entire industry by launching some

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay Stress is inescapably present in the lives of every living organism. While some stress can be beneficial, too much of it is almost always disadvantageous. Frequently the word stress is used to describe the imposition of an undesirable psychological or physical state through uncontrollable or overwhelming circumstances. We tend to think of stress as a burden that we carry around with us. One individual might perceive that they are under an enormous amount of stress because of multiple impending deadlines, while another might feel stressed out because their house is not clean and unexpected guests are on their way. Despite the predominantly negative description above, stress itself is not necessarily bad. In fact, stress is an adaptive process without which our survival would be seriously compromised. Moderate stress can even have beneficial effects, such as improving cognitive function to facilitate meeting multiple deadlines and increasing energy supply to muscles to quickly clean th e entire house in a matter of minutes. However, too much or prolonged stress can result in a variety of detrimental effects on both physiological function and cognitive processes. Definition In order to properly understand the effects of stress on cognition, as measured by performance in a variety of mazes, we must first come to an understanding of what stress is. At its core, stress is can be defined as the response to a threat (or perceived threat) against homeostasis, the tendency of a system to maintain a stable internal environment. Living organisms, including humans and rodents, are open systems which work to maintain homeostasis despite being constantly bombarded by numerous external environmental insults. Homeostasis The concept of homeostasis was initially conceived by the French physiologist Claude Bernard in1854. He used the term milieu intà ©rierur to describe the ability of the internal environment (primarily the blood in Bernards time) of the body to compensate for and re-equilibrate in response to the external environment [1,2]. However, it was Walter Cannon who developed the concept of homeostasis. He proposed that the body maintained steady state conditions through multiple cooperative self-regulating mechanisms. One phenomenon observed by Cannon was that organisms respond to a threat by releasing epinephrine (aka adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla thereby increasing the bodys heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure while mobilizing glucose stores and inhibiting non-essential functions such as digestion and reproduction. This phenomenon is the prototypical sympathetic nervous system (a branch of the autonomic nervous system) response, for which Cannon coined the term fight-or-flig ht response [3]. Simply put, when confronted with a threat, an organism, through the narrowing of bodily functions and mobilization of available energy, is primed to respond actively, whether through fleeing or fighting. Thus, the primary contribution of Walter Cannon to the definition of stress was that in response to an environmental insult threatening the internal steady stated, the body initiates the sympathetic response to maintain homeostasis and ultimately increase survival. General Adaptation Syndrome The second major contributor to stress research was endocrinologist Hans Selye. Selye was working to discover a new hormone by injecting ovarian extracts in to rats and observing the physiological effects. He noted several changes after injection of this extract, including the 1) enlargement of the adrenal gland, 2) the atrophy of the thymus and lymph nodes and 3) the presence of gastric ulcers [4]. While he initially thought these effects were direct effects of a novel hormone, through additional control experiments he discovered that the injection of numerous agents, physical injury or even excessive exercise produced the same reliable effects [5]. Emphasizing the non-specificity of this response, Selye called these effects the General Adaptation Syndrome initially and later used the term stress to describe it. He further defined stressors as the factors or agents that triggered the stress response. In addition, Selye established the role of glucocorticoids, steroid hormones excret ed from the adrenal cortex, in the stress response. Furthermore, Selye described that prolonged exposure to stressors (and the stress response) can lead to illness or disease. Summary The combined work of Walter Cannon and Hans Selye formed the basis of stress research. Both agreed that when confronted with disruptive environmental factors, the body generated an adaptive response aimed at re-establishing homeostasis within the internal environment. Cannon focused on the sympathetic branch of this response, while Selye focused on the hormonal (i.e., endocrine) branch of this response. Modern thinking has modified the conceptualization of stress, as it turned out to be not quite as simple as originally thought. Importantly it is no longer thought that stress is non-specific as the magnitude and more subtle characteristics of the stress response are varied based on the type of stressor, the individuals perception of the stress and ability to cope. The following basic features of stress can be gleaned from this historical work: Stressors are any event, experience or environmental insult that threatens or is perceived to threaten homeostasis Stress is an adaptive response to re-establish and maintain homeostasis Stress is ultimately mediated by two branches: The sympathetic nervous system via release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla The endocrine system via release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex These definitions and characteristics are more conducive to scientific study than the layman use of the term stress which does not distinguish between the trigger and the response, as described in the opening of this section. Thus, the definitions above will be utilized in the following sections. This chapter will further develop these basic concepts and present 1) an overview of the stress response, 2) descriptions of the different types of stressors, 3) the effects of both acute and chronic stress on learning and memory and 4) practical details on how to deal with the nuances of stress in behavioral testing. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACUTE STRESS RESPONSE When a stressor is encountered, the brain triggers a physiological response, aimed at coping with the stressor and restoring homeostasis [6]. This response is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Both of these systems are always actively engaged in maintaining homeostasis, but when posed with a disruption to an organisms internal environment, the HPA axis and SNS go into overdrive. When stressors are encountered several central nervous system (CNS) structures are activated to initiate the stress response, including the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord in addition to several brainstem and limbic forebrain structures [7]. These structures then recruit neural and neuroendocrine systems to initiate a stress response, culminating with the secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs) and epinephrine, the principle mediators of this adaptive response. The Sympathetic Nervous System Two primary pathways are activated by stressors within the SNS, the brain norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) and the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry. Many, but not all stressors result in norepinephrine release from the LC, which ultimately contributes to the majority of circulating NE levels as well as numerous adaptive behaviors [8,9]. Activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry via preganglionic neurons results in the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto postganglionic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons primarily release of norepinephrine directly onto various target organs. On the other hand, activation of the adrenal medulla results in the synthesis and release of epinephrine into the circulation and indirectly onto target organs. Target organs activated by these catecholamines neurotransmitters correspond directly to the symptoms of the fight-or-flight response, including increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, pupil dilation, and inhibition of digestion, liver, kidney and gall bladder function. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (Figure 1: HPA axis from Lupien 2009 Review) The present chapter will focus on the endocrine branch of the stress response. While the activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a key part of stress, many of the effects of stress on learning and memory have been shown to be dependent on GCs. The secretion of adrenal GC hormones is under the stimulatory drive of the medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. In response to stressors, brainstem and limbic forebrain regions activate these neurons to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophysial circulation to stimulate the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the peripheral circulation which ultimately results in the release of GCs from the adrenal gland [10]. GCs are carried to every organ via the circulation to allow for a coordinated adaptive response between the brain and bodily functions. GCs mobilize energy, suppress immune and inflammatory responses, inhibi t bone and muscle growth and reproductive function as well as increase attention and impact learning and memory processes [11]. GCs also regulate further CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback loops by binding receptors in the pituitary, PVN, hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) to inhibit further GC release and to return the homeostatic balance of the HPA axis [10] (Fig. 1). While these are the primary targets of GCs, virtually every neuron in the brain has receptors for these hormones. Thus, GCs are an important enabler of normal brain function in addition to their role in HPA axis function. Corticosterone (CORT), the primary GC in the rat, is the ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), steroid hormone receptors that function as transcription factors and regulate neuronal gene transcription. GR and MR have different affinities for CORT in the brain. GRs are expressed ubiquitously in the brain, and are most concentrated in the CRH neurons of the PVN and ACTH releasing neurons in the anterior pituitary and also in the HPC [10]. The highest expression of MRs in the brain is in the HPC, though they are expressed in other forebrain regions [10]. MRs are saturated by modest levels of CORT, such as those generated during circadian oscillations, and thus mediate daily changes in HPA axis activity. On the other hand, GRs are saturated by more extreme levels of CORT, such as those seen following a stressful experience, and mediate negative feedback to restore homeostasis [12,10]. Time Course of the Acute Stress Response (Figure 2: rise and fall of CORT) The typical stress response begins within a very short period of time. The SNS response occurs more rapidly than the HPA axis response, due to direct neurotransmitter release on target tissues vs. indirect hormonal release into the circulation, respectively. Within seconds, the post-ganglionic neurons of the SNS release norepinephrine and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into circulation. Also within seconds, CRH is released from the PVN of the hypothalamus, followed quickly by the release of ACTH into peripheral circulation from the anterior pituitary [13]. Within 3-5 minutes, the adrenal cortex releases CORT into the circulation, by which time peak plasma ACTH levels are reached. While peak levels of GCs vary according to stressor type and duration, circulating CORT levels typically reach peak levels15-30 minutes after stressor initiation [14]. At this time ACTH levels have also returned to baseline [14]. However, the effects of GCs on target tissues do not occur until abou t an hour after stressor initiation [13]. After peak CORT levels are reached, negative feedback mechanisms shut down further CORT secretion so that circulating CORT levels recover to near baseline levels within 60-120 minutes after stressor initiation [15,14]. The time required to reach baseline levels also varies depending on stressor type and duration. Circulating levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine follow a similar trajectory, but with more rapid increases and decreases [16]. Biological Rhythms Plasma levels of CORT are not static, but follow a circadian rhythm that is closely aligned with the sleep-wake cycles. In both humans and rodents, plasma GCs rise as the sleep cycle (inactive phase) ends and peaks upon waking up. From this peak, GC levels fall during the active phase and eventually reach the circadian trough or nadir (the lowest point in the cycle) [17,18]. However, as nocturnal animals, the active phase for rodents is during the dark period and the inactive phase occurs during the light period. Thus, in laboratory animals, peak CORT levels are found just after the lights are turned off and nadir CORT levels are measured when the lights are turned on. In addition, within this circadian rhythm GCs are released in an ultradian (cycles repeated within the 24 hour period) pulsatile pattern which rises and falls according to the circadian rhythm [19]. Basal levels of CORT measured in rats can typically range from 0-200 ng/mL in adult male rats or 100-500 ng/mL in adult f emale rats [18]. In response to acute stressors, peak stress levels of CORT generally range from 200-600 ng/mL in adult male rats and 500-1000 ng/mL in adult female rats. Both basal and peak stress levels of CORT can vary depending on the sampling time within the circadian rhythm. Sex, Age and Strain Differences As noted above, sex differences in HPA axis activity and responses to acute stressors are well documented. Female rodents exhibit higher basal and stress induced levels of both ACTH and CORT [20,21]. Sex differences in CORT secretion are primarily mediated by estrogen, with higher levels of ACTH and CORT found during proestrus, when circulating levels of estrogen are high [20,18]. Much of the research on gonadal steroid regulation of the HPA axis suggests that estrogen has excitatory effects while androgens have inhibitory effects [22-26]. In addition, females have higher levels of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG), which partially buffers the higher levels of CORT [27,24]. CBG binds circulating CORT and renders it biologically inactive [28,29]. However, CBG levels take several hours to increase after exposure to a stressor, resulting in higher levels of biologically active CORT in females in response to stressors [30]. Acute stress responses can also vary across the lifespan. After birth, from day 2 to 14, rats experience a stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) wherein circulating basal CORT remain very low and neonatal pups fail to show an elevation in CORT in response to stress or ACTH administration[31-33]. Adolescence is the next developmental epoch, which includes three stages: pre-pubescence/early adolescence (21-34 days), mid-adolescence (34-46 days) and late adolescence (46-59 days) [34,35]. During early adolescence, rats exhibit an exaggerated HPA axis response to both acute and chronic stress compared to adults [36,37]. In addition, sex differences in HPA axis function mature over the adolescent period [38,39]. The acute stress response has also been investigated in aging animals, though a great deal of heterogeneity, particularly with respect to the aging model has been found [40]. However, the general consensus, based on earlier studies, is that aged animals exhibit elevated baseline (or basal) CORT and a prolonged stress-induced elevation in CORT release, possibly due to decreased GR-mediated negative feedback [41,42]. It should also be noted that aging is associated with increased variability in the acute stress response [40]. Sex differences in acute HPA axis responses are not frequently examined in aged rats. However, since estrogen decreases with age, and males demonstrate increased basal CORT, it would be expected that sex differences would become less robust [43,44] Robust strain differences in both basal and peak stress levels of CORT also exist. In general, the in bred Fischer 344 (F344) strain of rats secrete higher levels of both basal and stress induced CORT levels compared to both the inbred Lewis (LEW) strain and the outbred Sprague Dawley (SD) strain (Dhabar 1993). Interestingly, both F344 and SD rats show increased basal CORT levels at the end of the inactive period, while LEW rats did not show a robust circadian rhythm (Dhabar 1993). As mentioned above, strain differences can also interact with age differences to further complicate the picture of a normal HPA axis stress response across the lifespan. CHRONIC STRESS Exposure to chronic stress can result in long term elevations in GCs and has been shown to alter the structure and function of the brain regions involved in regulating the HPA axis as well as learning and memory and numerous other behaviors [7]. Two general responses in HPA axis function occur as a result of chronic stress, namely habituation and sensitization. Habituation typically occurs following repeated exposure to the same (homotypic) mild stressor, with the magnitude of the HPA axis response (i.e. CORT secretion) diminishing with each subsequent exposure to the stressor [45,46]. On the other hand, repeated exposure to different (heterotypic) and unpredictable stressors can diminish the habituation of the HPA axis response [47-49]. Interestingly, both chronic homotypic and heterotypic unpredictable stressors cause sensitization of the HPA axis response to a novel stressor, resulting in increased ACTH and CORT secretion [45,48]. The most frequently studied brain regions that are vulnerable to chronic stress are the HPC, amygdala (AMG) and PFC [50]. In both the HPC and PFC, chronic restraint stress results in dendritic atrophy and decreased GR expression, which facilitates decreased HPA axis feedback and impaired memory [51-54,7]. In addition, chronic stress can also lead to altered hippocampal excitability, neurochemistry and neurogenesis (refs from Conrad 2010 review if needed?). On the other hand, chronic stress causes dendritic hypertrophy and increased CRH expression in the AMG as well as dendritic hypertrophy in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), which facilitate HPA axis excitability and anxiety and habitual behavior, respectively [7,55-58]. Sex, Age and Strain Differences Sex differences in response to chronic stress exposure are less frequently examined. The above-mentioned effects are well documented in males. However, chronic stress does not appear to have the same effects in females. For example, females appear to be resilient against chronic stress induced dendritic atrophy in the HPC and spatial memory impairments [59-63]. In the PFC, females exhibit dendritic hypertrophy, whereas males demonstrate dendritic atrophy in response to repeated stress exposure [64]. In addition, chronic stress is associated with sex-specific PFC-mediated behavioral effects. Chronically stressed males show impairments in recall of fear extinction, possibly reflecting decreased behavioral flexibility [65-67]. However, chronically stressed females demonstrate impaired memory for the acquisition of fear conditioning, which is more dependent on the AMG [68-70]. Interestingly, males show dendritic hypertrophy and increased activation of the AMG and an associated increase i n the acquisition of fear conditioning following chronic stress [67]. Thus, in females, chronic stress causes more moderate morphological and behavioral outcomes that may be related to sex-specific changes in AMG function. Chronic stress also has differential effects across the lifespan. In general, earlier exposure to chronic stress (i.e. prenatal and neonatal) have protracted and irreversible effects compared to adult chronic stress. Exposing pregnant rat dams to chronic stress increases circulating CORT which crosses through the placenta and reaches the developing fetus to alter brain development and HPA axis activity [71]. The long-term effects of prenatal stress include increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion as well as learning impairments, increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and sensitivity to drugs of abuse [72,73]. Postnatal stress is typically induced by disrupting the maternal-pup interactions (i.e., maternal separation or daily handling of pups). The long-term effects of early postnatal stress include altered anxiety-like behavior and stress-induced HPA axis activity in adulthood though the direction of these effects are varied and highly dependent on the age of the p up, as well as the type and duration of the manipulations [72,74,75]. Chronic adolescent stress can result in enduring effects in adulthood, including decreased hippocampal volume, impaired spatial learning, and increased anxiety-like behavior adulthood [76-79]. However, there is less evidence for adolescent stress exposure to result in depressive behaviors in adulthood [80,81]. Studies of long lasting effects of adolescent stress exposure on HPA axis function are mixed, while most report no effect on basal or stress-induced CORT or ACTH secretion, some studies find increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion in adulthood [82,78,76,83,84]. Chronic stress exposure during adolescence can lead to long term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects, depending on the timing of exposure, the sex of the animal and the type of stressors used [82,84,85]. In aged animals, chronic stress has differential effects compared to young or middle-aged adult rats. For example, following 3 weeks of c hronic restraint stress in aged males and females, stress-induced sex differences were no longer evident on spatial and non-spatial memory tasks and chronic stress either facilitated or did not impair performance in aged male rats [86,87]. In addition, in aged animals sex-specific effects of chronic stress are reversed [86,87]. Furthermore, chronic stress in aged rats may potentiate stress-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the HPC [72,88]. Strain differences are also noted in the effects of chronic stress. Interestingly, and in line with acute stress strain differences, the inbred F344 strain do not demonstrate habituation of the plasma CORT response to chronic stress with a repeated homotypic stressor, while SD and LEW rat strains do [46]. F344, but not SD and LEW, rats also exhibit adrenal gland hypertrophy after 3 sessions of restraint over 10 days [46]. F344 rats also exhibit a lack of HPA axis habituation following 14 days of restraint compared to SD rats [89]. Consistent with these findings, robust differences between SD and LEW rats were not found in either male or female rats in HPA axis response to an acute stressor after chronic exposure to unpredictable heteroptyic stressors [90]. TYPES OF STRESSORS Acute Stressors (Figure 3: Equipment/Stressors) In addition to being a threat against homeostasis, stressors can be described as any event or environment that is novel, unpredictable, poses a threat to well-being or ego, or creates a sense of loss of control (Lupien 2007). Acute stressors are stressors which occur on a single occasion with varying durations. Typically acute stressors last anywhere from 5 minutes to upwards of 6 hours, but in general for a period of time less than 24 hours. Acute stressors of longer durations are sometimes referred to as single prolonged stressors. Essentially the purpose of an acute stressor is for the experimental subject to mount a single stress response, or activation of the HPA axis. There are many different types of stressors and categorization of these stressors is attempted by many, though not all stress researchers agree. Stressors can vary in the type of perceived stress such as physical or psychological (or some combination of the two) as well as intensity and duration. Depending on the type of stressor used, differential effects on the HPA axis and SNS responses will occur. Physical stressors are stressors that are predominantly identified or perceived through the senses or involuntary (autonomic) mechanisms. Examples of physical stressors include extreme temperatures, loud noise, chemical exposure, extreme activity, metabolic or immune system disruptions, hemorrhage and pain. The most extreme physical stressors are necessarily limited to short durations due to discomfort. Many physical stressors can be administered in multiple ways or in combination with other stressors. To manipulate temperature, rodent subjects can be place in a standard cold room (~4-6 °C) or a hot room (~30-40 °C) or in cold (~18-20 °C) or hot water (~25-35 °C) as part of a forced swim stressor (forced exercise) [91-93]. Loud noises stressors are most effective at a range of ~90-110 dB [94]. Chemical stressors include exposure to ether vapors, hypoxic conditions, and injection of formalin or other noxious substances [93,95]. Stressors involving extreme activity include forc ed swim and on the opposite end of the spectrum, immobilization, wherein the subject is splayed out on a board with all its limbs and head secured to prevent movement. Metabolic disruptions can include fasting or food restriction, injections of insulin to induce hypoglycemia or lipopolysaccharide to induce an immune reaction. Hemorrhage or hypovolemia is induced by removing a percentage of blood volume with a moderate hemorrhage consisting of removal of ~20% estimated blood volume [96]. Finally, pain can be induced via numerous methods. Frequently used stressors include tail pinch with clothespins or hemostats. Another common stressor associated with pain is mild ( Psychological stressors are perceived threats against homeostasis or well-being. Important qualities of psychological stressors include loss of control, unpredictability and novelty. Identification of psychological stressors can also be experience or species dependent, in that the anticipation of the event itself can be a stressor, even in the absence of the actual event. Psychological stressors may also induce fear, anxiety or other behavioral changes. The effectiveness of psychological stressors is primarily under the control of limbic brain regions such as the HPC, AMG and PFC [7]. Several types of psychological stressors are used, including those that activate innate and species-specific behaviors and fear, inescapable/uncontrollable stressors, and social stressors. Activation of innate fear (based on a threat to safety/survival) in rodents can be accomplished with exposure to a predator (i.e. a cat or snake) or to a novel or unfamiliar environments particularly those with are op en and brightly lit (i.e. open field or elevated plus maze). Inescapable and uncontrollable stressors include inescapable foot or tail shock, forced swim and restraint. Rodent restraint is the most frequently used and well-documented stressor. It can also be combined with other physical stressors such as being placed in a rotating platform or in combination with tail pinch. Interestingly, even animal handling can be categorized as this type a stressor. Social stressors make up their own entire subcategory. Many researchers believe that social stressors are the most translationally relevant because the primary source of stress in humans comes from social interactions, expectations and even trauma. Rats are by nature social animals, but too much or too little can elicit a stress response. Two of the least effortful social stressors are isolation housing and high density housing (i.e. crowding). Interestingly males show a greater stress response to crowding while females show a greater stress response to single (i.e. isolation) housing [98]. A popular social stressor is social defeat, utilizing the resident intruder paradigm. This paradigm consists of using aggressive male rats (i.e. retired breeders or reared in isolation without handling) as the resident rat. The experimental rat (i.e. the one which will mount a stress response) is the intruder and is placed in the home cage of the resident rat. Typically the rats are allowed contac t with each other until the intruder demonstrates defeat behaviors (i.e. submissive supine posturing). In one modification of this paradigm, the intruder remains in the home cage of the resident rat but is separated, and therefore protected from physical harm, by a wire mesh enclosure [99,100]. A novel socially based stressor that is less labor intensive is to place a male rat in the dirty cage of another male rat. Thus the male rat is in an inescapable territory of another male rat, without physical contact [101]. Chronic Stress Paradigms Chronic stress is prolonged stress that typically occurs for at least 5 days, typically 1-3 weeks and sometimes up to 6 weeks or more. Many different types of chronic stress paradigms can be used, depending on the desired outcome measures. An additional variable to consider with chronic stress paradigms is the likelihood of habituation of the stress response over time, as mentioned above. Examples of chronic stress paradigms include chronic restraint, chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, chronic variable stress, chronic social stress, and chronic intermittent stress. Chronic restraint stress and chronic mild stress have historically been the most frequently used chronic stress paradigms. Interestingly, these paradigms have different phenotypic outcomes. Chronic restraint stress is frequently carried out with daily 6 hour restraint sessions for 3 weeks (Conrad XXXX). However, because chronic restraint stress is repeated exposure to a single homotypic stressor, habituation of the stress response after the first few days likely occurs as evidenced by blunted CORT and ACTH release in response to restraint following completion of the chronic restraint paradigm [102,103]. This paradigm is well characterized with regard to spatial learning and memory deficits as well as altered dendritic morphology, particularly dendritic retraction in the hippocampus [104]. Interestingly, spontaneous recovery of both altered dendritic morphology and spatial learning and memory deficits has been observed [105]. Chronic restraint stress also alters anxiety- and depressiv e-like behaviors, impairs response inhibition, facilitates fear learning and reduces motivation for food reward [106-108,53] Chronic mild stress (CMS) is typically used to induce an anhedonic (i.e. depressive-like) phenotype [109]. This paradigm typically involves exposure of the subjects to one mild stressor a day, typically for 6-8 weeks [109,110]. Stressors are administered on a set weekly schedule and include wet bedding, cage tilt, mild footshock, alterations in the light-dark cycle, food/water deprivation and cage changes [109,110]. Anhedonic effects of CMS, which can last up to 3 months, include decreased sucrose consumption, increased threshold for intracranial self-stimulation and decreased locomotor activity in the absence an anxiety-like phenotype [109]. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is essentially an iteration of CMS, which lasts for a shorter period of time (~2 weeks) and presents mild to moderate stressors once a day in a more randomized order and time of day [111,112]. Depressive-like phenotypes are seen after CUS exposure in addition to anxiety-like phenotypes and cognitive deficits [1 12,91]. Chronic variable stress (CVS) is yet another more severe iteration of a repeated administration of heterotypic stressors. More recently, CVS paradigms have differentiated themselves from CMS paradig

Hannibal :: essays research papers

Hannibal-RPR In Thomas Harris' Hannibal, Harris, like many other authors, seems to be obsessed with the darker side of humanity and it is through his characterisation of "Hannibal the Cannibal" in his novel that he revels the other side of humanity, the side that most people would rather stayed locked up. Hannibal however would not stay locked up. In the previous novel "Silence of the Lambs" Hannibal escaped during a transfer from his cell in Baltimore to an institution Memphis. He lived a quiet and secluded live after escaping, he'd been careful, and had never been tracked. He had been careless when he sent a letter to Clarice. During a drugs raid Clarice shot drug baron Evelda Drumgo after she shot an officer. Evelda was holding a baby and the media did not publicize well the shooting of a woman clutching a baby. It was this that alerted Hannibal to Clarice's misfortunes and lead him to sending the letter that would revel his location and eventually lead to his capture. His capture was not by authorities but by Mason Verger, Hannibal's only surviving victim who now needs a respirator to live and can very rarity leave his chamber. Mason did not have him captured to hand over the authorities but to have his face eaten by pigs like mason had his face eaten off by dogs. Before Mason had a chance to have Hannibal's face eaten off Clarice Starling breaks into the barn, proceeds to rescue Hannibal but unfortunately before she can rescue him she is shot in the back with a tranquilizer several times and Hannibal has to rescue her. Hannibal takes her back to his home to recover and by the time she is recovered her and Hannibal get along well and she ends up living with him in a mansion in Italy but not after Hannibal and Clarice make a dinner of Mr. Krendler, a man who tried to halt Clarice's career at every opportunity. . It is on how the writer revels the darker side of Hannibal that I would like to concentrate this essay. The writer, Thomas Harris, uses many techniques to help revel and explain the dark side of Hannibal although he does enlighten us to the lighter side and his life before he was uncovered as a homicidal psychopath. In a letter sent to Clarice from Hannibal after the shooting insolent Hannibal explains that he has followed her public humiliation closely and describes how similar they are, but not in as few words.

A Researched Investigation on Best Practices for English Language Learners Essay

ELL students represent a large percentage of the population within schools in the United States. This group of students is actually increasing more than that of English speaking students. (Shore, 2001). This group also has a very high drop out rate, coupled with low ranking grades, academic achievement and scholarly expectations. Truly, ELL students are considered an â€Å"at-risk† population. (Thompson, 2000). In order to confront this challenge, teachers are faced with a unique situation that requires a unique solution in order to help these students not only learn the English language, but also to bring them up to speed with the academic material congruent with modern learning standards. The focus of this investigation asks the question, â€Å"How can teachers best instruct English Language Learners (ELL) students when these mostly monolingual teachers are often ill-equipped with the necessary tools and environments for optimum learning? † The investigation will then state a hypothesis as to the proposed best models under which teachers can best instruct ELL students. The paper will then support this hypothesis, cross-referencing literature reviews which outline non-traditional models of instruction that have proven to be the most effective in instructing limited English learners. It will then finally look at some of the conclusions to be derived from the investigation, reflecting on how teachers can best inspire students, and offering a few real-world application scenarios to the adjusted models. Hypothesis The current modal that schools use to deal with ELL students is that of the â€Å"sorting paradigm. † This model normally â€Å"sorts† ELL students into low-quality education programs which do not challenge or inspire students. For this reason, many students will drop out of school and will not obtain a high school diploma. It is hypothesized that if ELL reform involve high-quality programs integrating other modules that differ from the current monolingual teacher/ traditional teaching scenarios, more success can be achieved by ELL students. Despite vast changes in second language acquisition theory and pedagogy in the last fifty years, an English-only classroom fronted by a teacher who is monolingual or who is encouraged to behave as if he or she is monolingual, has remained the dominant practice in the teaching of ELL. (Ellis 2004) Furthermore, non-traditional teaching scenarios also instill more of a sense of purpose and placement into students who are confronting the challenges of a new culture and a new language. Finally, these nontraditional models incorporate a greater sense of individual self esteem and opportunities for success than traditional models. Non-traditional models help students assimilate the culture, traditions, values, attitudes that are associated with their new language and surroundings. This paper will outline some of the recent literature supporting the hypothesis in favor of non-traditional ELL models, and will take a critical analysis that expounds upon some of the downfalls of traditional methods. Review of Literature Studies show that most teachers are ill-equipped at dealing with the different levels of language acquisition. A recent study from the Johns Hopkins University has mentioned some important tools for recognizing these different levels of language acquisition in students. This experimental study of reading programs for English language learners has shown that existing evidence favors bilingual approaches to teaching students, especially paired bilingual strategies that enable teachers to teach students reading in their native languages, and English, at the same time. This study also showed that English language learners benefited from other models of instruction such as systematic phonics, one-to-one or small group tutoring programs, cooperative learning programs, and programs emphasizing extensive reading. In order to effectively develop these programs, it is necessary for school systems to increase ELL budgets. Statistics show that there has been a huge increase in the amount of ELL students. (Nunez-Wormack, 1993) Unfortunately, while the number of students is actually growing, there have been huge cuts in budget programs designed to serve ELL students. A nontraditional model of teaching ELL involves a monolingual (English-speaking) teacher who only a traditional oral-classroom. The theory behind this model is that the ELL student will learn more from a monolingual teacher who will not be tempted to revert back to the student’s mother tongue as a means of understanding. This is also a theory that is becoming widely challenged in regard to ELL best practice methodology. Freeman and Freeman (2001) CITE believe that a traditional oral-based classroom does not take into account the multitiered nature of the students experience. The Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR) gives us an example of these non-traditional systems of learning involving utilizing explicit teacher talk, think-aloud, story-telling, dramatizing, poetry readings, pantomiming, singing, peer-discussing, read-aloud, shared reading, small group instruction and peer instruction. Qualitative data analysis from a comparative study looking at traditional oral classrooms compared to a computer-assisted classroom also showed that the use of technology in ELL programs also showed positive effects for the use of computers in ELL classrooms. (Sullivana, Prattb 1999) Another issue in the traditional versus nontraditional models for ELL learning is that of monolingual versus bilingual (1st language usage) in the classroom. Typically, there has been a widespread acceptance of English-only medium of communication within the confines of an ELL classroom. There is a growing body of evidence that support the view that L1 (native language) and/or bilingual teaching methods are actually more beneficial to ELL students. Many studies have shown that bilingual scenarios actually support the student both technically and culturally in their advancement (see, e. g. , Judd, 1987). It is widely accepted by ELL teachers today that the use of L1 impedes students from process in the acquisition of English. According to Phillipson, (1992) English is best taught monolingual, by an English is a native speaker, and without the use of other languages, as the standards of English will drop. Recent research suggests that this rationale is not helpful. Currently, the drop-out rate for ELL students is unbelievable high. A study of effective practices for linguistically and culturally diverse students (Garcia, 1991) found that classrooms that integrated L1 were more successful in the long run, both in regard to use language and the transition to the English language. An NCLE survey identifies two studies that point towards the beneficial effect of L1 language use in subsequent oral and written English acquisition. (Robson’s 1982 study of Hmong refugees in Thailand and Burtoff’s 1985 study of Haitian Creole speakers in New York City). Rivera (1990) discusses a variety of options for integrating L1 into instruction, stating that because L1 is available, many more students will actually be inclined to participate in the classroom. Often, students will drop-out due to an insecurity and embarrassment to speak English. D’Annunzio (1991) reports that students had significant success with this model. Strei (1992) reports that drop-out rates decreased from a shocking 85% (with traditional monolingual English instruction) prior to the program to 10% (with the non-traditional bilingual model). Studies also show that this methods reduces social anxiety, increases the effectiveness for learning, takes into account important cultural factors, and allows for learner-focused curriculum development. Piasecka (1986) argues that it allows students to use languages as a â€Å"meaning-making tool† for effective communication, instead of an end in itself. How can teachers best instruct English Language Learner (ELL) students when these mostly monolingual teachers are often ill-equipped with the necessary tools and environments for optimum learning? Haynes & O’Loughlin (2002) introduce the concept of â€Å"scaffolding. † This refers to the teacher offering meaningful support, using questioning techniques to elicit response that can be related to the student’s own cultural background. Normally, this is not a technique provided within the classroom, and usually on the contrary, the teacher attempts to avoid all associations to the students native language and culture. The study also suggests that â€Å"sheltering† is an effective mechanism whereby the teacher introduces new content through the use of music, story-telling, visual aids and play. Another effective technique is â€Å"reciprocal teaching. † Using this method, the teacher presents and interactive lesson whereby he/she can assess the students comprehension in relationship to the lesson, constantly restructuring lessons in regard to student success. This method is successful in enhancing learning processes, and increases the self-esteem of the student. Proven Best Practice Guidelines for ELL Teachers and Learners What would be the characteristics of the best ELL educator, as well as the optimum program for ELL learning? The following is a suggested list from Texas A&M report, State of the Art Research and Best Practices in Bilingual/ESL Education, competent teachers should 1. Use many visual aids 2. Model appropriate behavior and language for students. 3. Use gestures, body language, and facial expressions to develop understanding. 4. Perform demonstrations to ensure comprehension and in depth understanding. 5. Use graphic organizers, story maps, semantic webbing, and paraphrasing techniques. 6. Provide vocabulary previews of forthcoming lessons. 7. Ask students to make predictions when reading stories aloud. 8. Adapt and simplify material in textbooks to make it more comprehensible. 9. Provide cooperative learning groups. 10. Utilize peer tutoring. 11. Provide multicultural content in classroom. 12. Seek out primary language support for students needing assistance. 13. Create a non-threatening environment where students feel comfortable to take risks with language. 14. Make connections between content being taught and students’ prior knowledge and experiences. 15. Provide much time for student engagement and interaction with the teacher. 16. Allow time for students to practice and apply daily lessons. Related Studies in Best Practice for the ELL Classroom Franco (2002) argues that students who are beginning their studies of English respond to non-verbal stimulus, and display a very limited understanding of language when it is only spoken. Currently, oral-teaching is the standard practice within ELL. Franco argues that students rely heavily on peers for language learning, and therefore benefit from work in small groups, and are particularly successful when this group work involves pantomiming, role-playing, and visual support. The author also concurs that only in later stages of language fluency does a student do well with ordinary conversations and printed-page learning. Many ELL children are faced by what Olsen (2000) refers to as â€Å"language shock,† or a struggle to learn a language within a society that is not always open to the diversity of other cultures. ELL students face many obstacles including a dilemma faced by the need to embrace a new language and culture, while at the same time, feeling that are forced to abandon their own language and surrender key aspects of their identity. Olsen refers to this as the power struggle between the old and new. Another challenge to students is the fact that they are primarily taught academic English. Many can attest that the languages learned in a classroom is very different than the â€Å"slang† spoken by their peers in the hallways. ELL students are usually separated from native English speakers, and do not have the opportunity to learn slang through social interaction. Olsen believes that ELL students, due to the current method of instruction, end up torn between their native culture and the new culture. (Meyer, 2000) suggests that teachers can help ELL students overcome these barriers though changes in instruction. Meyer suggests the strategy of Vygotsky’s social interactionist theory. This theory suggests that children internalize language and learning through cultural and group mediation. Vygotsky observed that higher mental functions developed through social interaction. Through these interactions, a child learns speech patterns, oral and written language skills, cultural clues, slang and symbolic knowledge. These things are what allow an ELL student, similarly, to obtain knowledge. The most important contribution of Vygotskian psychology to the ELL best-practice investigation, is called cultural mediation, which refers to the fact the people obtain specific knowledge through a shared knowledge of a culture. This is the process of internalization. Truly, a student cannot be expected to succeed without the mediation and internalization process, and equally, students can only gain this knowledge through non-tradition teaching methods. This theory sets up a classroom that fosters learning by such methods (as mentioned before) as modeling, internalization, cultural mediation, scaffolding and constructive understanding of projects. The social interactionist model has the gaol of making the ELL students become independent thinkers and problem solvers themselves. In the article, Turning Frustration into Success for English Language Learners, authors Brice & Roseberry-McKibbin (1999) address the issue of language learning disabilities. More than any other student, these students face the most challenge. The authors argue that the current system is â€Å"an underlying language learning system that is inadequate for learning any language. † These studies show that ELL student progress is greater when a speech pathologist and classroom teacher work together with learning in groups. These same studies also showed that progress was greater when these methods of teaching were employed on a consistent daily basis. The following is a summary of best practice strategies from Turning Frustration into Success for English Language Learners: Teachers should check in with students as to whether they understand was it is expected of them before starting a new project or lesson Students from similar cultural or linguistics backgrounds should be encouraged to support one another, and even sit near each other Repeating is necessary Teachers should come up with good questioning techniques. Students should be given ample time to formulate answers Students should be given time to think of answers before they are called on Teachers should avoid giving content which is beyond expectations Teachers should speak slowly Teachers should use multi-sensory methods (hands-on) Scaffolding should be used Critical Analysis Each of the above mentioned resources state the following conclusion: Teachers must incorporate non-tradition methods of instruction into ELL classrooms in order to work with best-practice methodology. It is stated over and over that educators must work with education within the context of a social and cultural climate. Simply put, relationships between teachers and students have a major impact on how well an ELL student will grasp the host language. These articles also point to the issue of power structure and peer struggles among ELL students. Truly, students cannot achieve in a hostile learning environment. It is well-documented in these and other studies, that ELL children are often made fun of my teachers and students when they speak their native languages. This leads to social withdrawal and shyness. It is easy to see how this problem worsens the situation in regard to language learning, where the goal is free-expression through words. Olsen (2002) is correct in his opinion that ELL students remain torn between two worlds. This leads us to the understanding and backing of biculturalism and bilingualism. This is another best-practice that the above studies and articles support. Truly, a society that embraces diversity, biculturalism and bilingualism will help ELL students not only learn English, but will allow them to maintain their native tongues. Conclusion Upon an extensive review of recent literature, it can be stated that ELL students generally have different needs than native English-speaking students. They generally require more support and individualized attention to their needs. They are undertaking a huge task of attempting to learn their studies, while at the same time aquaria new linguistic and cultural skills, while at the same time merging new experiences and environments. It is clear from the presented research that the current traditional, oral-based ELL classroom environment is simply not conducive to learning. The staggering drop-out rates among ELL students are a testament to these findings. It has also been consistently shown that these drop-out rates improve significantly when a bilingual, nontraditional instructional environment is created. It is clear that the best practice for the area of ELL education can be best understood not merely as a task of teaching students English, but of embracing the cultural and linguistic diversity that ELL students bring to schools. Another important conclusion can be cross-referenced to the aforementioned social-interaction theories. Students must being to get â€Å"know-how† in ELL classrooms. The mastery of skills occurs through social interaction with the society in question. In this way, true internalization of phenomenon can occur, whereby ELL students make tools their own. Reflection In reflection on the issue, one must not forget that we are talking about human beings. Many do not stop and think about how challenging it must be to leave one country and be forced into social, cultural, linguistic and educational upheaval. Many of these students have reported that they drop out because no one cares about them, people make fun of them, or because they feel that they cannot succeed within the education system. Unfortunately, many teachers see diversity as a problem that they must overcome. However, diversity can actually be a powerful instrument that will allow students to feel at home within the context of the classroom. It is important to reflect upon the fact that many under-represented minorities within the education system actually begin to see their ethnicity as a barrier to success. Many times educators do not explain how learning English, or any other subject for that matter, can be connected to the student’s traditional culture. Truly, diversity is on the increase in every school in the country, and teachers should begin to accept a move towards bilingual and multi-cultural settings. The following section will outline easy applications that can incorporate some of these best practices into the everyday lesson plan. Applications Practically, teachers can begin the apply some of the non-traditional methods of instruction that have been outlined in this essay. The following section discusses some of the real-world practical application of best-practice ELL instructional methods. These suggestions are designed to be practical and easy to adhere to. They require no special training and are practices that any ELL teacher can begin to incorporate into the classroom, whether they are monolingual or bilingual. Best-practice methods can be as simple as seating ELL students in the middle of the classroom (if mixed with native English speakers) so that they may see/hear what other students are doing. Teachers can assign a peer-buddy to the ELL student. They can also provide pictures and illustrations to illustrate new words and terms. Using pictures, maps, globes, tables, movies, slide shows, etc. , will help the student to grasp concepts more readily than a standard oral-instruction. Educators should give clear examples of words and concepts. Another useful tool for teachers is a tape recorder and listening material, as well as supplementary pictures, newspaper clippings and periodicals. A wonderful way of making ELL students feel comfortable is to ask them to describe cultural events or famous people from their home country, in English. This shows them that the educator is interested in their lives and home-culture. Cooperative groupings are great way to allow the student to begin expressing in English. The small group is less intimidating than a larger one. Prepare students by giving them vocabulary lists, with bilingual aids, and consistently acknowledge each and every student. Teachers can make learning English fun by collecting high interest, low-level books such as comic books or children’s books that portray events and cultural characters in simple English. Teachers can use games in small groups, drawings, cartoon bubbles, and music to make the challenge more fun. Reference List Auerbach, Elsa. TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 27, No. 1, Spring 1993. Reexamining English Only in the ESL Classroom. University of Massachusetts at Boston Brice, A. and Roseberry-Mckibbin, C. 1999. Turning frustration into success for English language learners. Educational Leadership, 56, 7, 53-55. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 10, 2001. Ellis, Elizabeth Margaret. Bilingualism among Teachers of English as a Second Language: A Study of Second Language Learning Experience as a Contributor to the Professional Knowledge and Beliefs of Teachers of ESL to Adults. Institution. 2004 Franco, Lydia. A Multisensory Program for English Language Development. ESL MiniConference. July 2002 Haynes, Judie and O’Loughlin, Judith. â€Å"Meeting the Challenge. of Content Instruction. † HYPERLINK â€Å"http://www. everythingEsl. net† http://www. everythingEsl. net (21 Aug. 2002). Meyer, L. 2000. Barriers to meaningful instruction for English learners. Theory into Practice, 39, 4, 228-236. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 10, 2001. Nunez-Wormack, Elsa. â€Å"Remarks. † Conference Proceedings ESL Students in the CUNY. Classroom: Faculty Strategies for Success. 5 Feb. 1993. Olsen, L. 2000. Learning English and learning America: Immigrants in the center of a storm. Theory into Practice, 39, 4, 196-202. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 4, 2001. Phillips, J. State of the Art Research and Best. Practices in Bilingual/ESL Education:. A Cornucopia. Professional Development Model. Texas A&M University. Rudnick, B. 1995. Bridging the chasm between your English and ESL students. Teaching PreK 8, 26, 48-49. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 4, 2001. Shore, K. 2001. Success for ESL students. Instructor, 110, 6, 30-32. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 4, 2001. Slavin, Robert E. EFFECTIVE READING PROGRAMS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS: A Best-Evidence Synthesis. Johns Hopkins University, December 2003 Sullivana, Nancy and Prattb, Ellen. A comparative study of two ESL writing environments: A computer-assisted classroom and a traditional oral classroom. Texas A&M University at Corpus Christi, College of Arts and Humanities, 6300 Ocean Drive, 24 February 1999. Thompson, G. 2000. The real deal on bilingual education: Former language-minority students discuss effective and ineffective instructional practices. Educational Horizons, 78, 2, 80-92. Accessed through WilsonWeb on-line database on June 10, 2001.

Poems to Read on Thanksgiving Day

Poems to Read on Thanksgiving Day The story of the first Thanksgiving is a familiar one to all Americans: After a year filled with suffering and death, in the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims at Plymouth had a feast to celebrate a bountiful harvest. This feast is surrounded by legends of the local Native Americans joining in the celebration and groaning tables of turkey, corn and some form of cranberry dish. These foods are the bedrock of the traditional American Thanksgiving dinner, celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November. It was not an official holiday until President Abraham Lincoln declared it so in 1863, although it was unofficially celebrated before that time by many Americans. It is a time for families gathered together to reflect on all the good things of their lives and an appropriate moment to read eloquent poems to mark the holiday and its meaning. The New-England Boys Song About Thanksgiving Day by Lydia Maria Child This poem, more commonly known as Over the River and Through the Wood, was written in 1844 and depicts a typical holiday journey through New England snows in the 19th century. In 1897 it was made into the song that is more familiar than the poem to Americans. It very simply tells the story of a sleigh ride through the snow, the dapple-gray horse pulling the sleigh, the howling of the wind and the snow all around, and at last arriving at grandmothers house, where the air is filled with the smell of pumpkin pie. It is the maker of the images of a typical Thanksgiving. The most famous words are the first stanza:​ Over the river, and through the wood,To grandfathers house we go;The horse knows the way,To carry the sleigh,Through the white and drifted snow. The Pumpkin by John Greenleaf Whittier John Greenleaf Whittier uses grandiose language in The Pumpkin (1850) to describe, in the end, his nostalgia for Thanksgivings of old and bounteous love for pumpkin pie, the enduring symbol of those holidays. The poem begins with strong imagery of pumpkins growing in a field and ends as an emotional ode to his now elderly mother, enhanced by similes. And the prayer, which my mouth is too full to express,Swells my heart that thy shadow may never be less,That the days of thy lot may be lengthened below,And the fame of thy worth like a pumpkin-vine grow,And thy life be as sweet, and its last sunset skyGolden-tinted and fair as thy own Pumpkin pie! No. 814 by Emily Dickinson Emily Dickinson lived her life almost entirely isolated from the rest of the world, rarely leaving her home in Amherst, Massachusetts, or receiving visitors, except for her family. Her poems were not known to the public in her lifetime; the first volume of her work was published in 1890, four years after her death. So its impossible to know when a particular poem was written. This poem about Thanksgiving, in characteristic Dickinson style, is obtuse in its meaning, but it implies that this holiday is as much about memories of previous ones as about the day at hand: One day is there of the seriesTermed Thanksgiving DayCelebrated part at tablePart in memory- Fire Dreams by Carl Sandburg Fire Dreams was published in Carl Sandburgs 1918 volume of poetry, Cornhuskers, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize in 1919. He is known for his Walt Whitman-like style and use of free verse. Sandburg writes here in the language of the people, directly and with relatively little embellishment, except for a limited use of metaphor, giving this poem a modern feel. He reminds the reader of the first Thanksgiving, conjures up the season and gives his thanks to God. Heres the first stanza: I remember here by the fire,In the flickering reds and saffrons,They came in a ramshackle tub,Pilgrims in tall hats,Pilgrims of iron jaws,Drifting by weeks on beaten seas,And the random chapters sayThey were glad and sang to God. Thanksgiving Time by Langston Hughes Langston Hughes, famous as a seminal and hugely important influence on the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, wrote poetry, plays, novels and short stories that shed a light on the black experience in America. This ode to Thanksgiving from 1921 invokes traditional images of the time of year and the food that is always part of the story. The language is simple, and this would be a good poem to read at a Thanksgiving with children gathered round the table. Heres the first stanza: When the night winds whistle through the trees and blow the crisp brown leaves a-crackling down,When the autumn moon is big and yellow-orange and round,When old Jack Frost is sparkling on the ground,Its Thanksgiving Time!

Personal Nursing Philosophy Essay Example

Personal Nursing Philosophy Essay Example Personal Nursing Philosophy Paper Personal Nursing Philosophy Paper Nursing Philosophy Statement The philosophy of nursing is defined as the intellectual and affective outcomes of the professional nurse’s efforts to: 1) understand the ultimate relationships between humans, their environment, and health 2) approach nursing as a scientific discipline 3) Integrate a sense of values; and 4) articulate a personal belief system about human beings, environment, health, and nursing as a process, according to Leddy Pepper (1998). To understand the ultimate relationships between humans, their environment and health is to care for them. Caring so that each person is treated as a unique and special individual regardless of where he or she lives and where he or she is from. Nursing must truly care for and be sensitive with the needs of others. Nursing must set goals to promote the well being of patients and their families. Nurses are to use their knowledge and skill to provide the care that is appropriate for and required by patients. Nurses must provide care according to the standards that have been set by the profession. This requires an ongoing critical assessment of one’s professional nursing practice by self and others. This process enables nurses to improve their knowledge and skill so that patients and their families benefit. Nurses integrate a sense of value by reflecting on their personal experiences and examine their personal beliefs regarding patient care. The nurse can reflect on the reasons for choosing nursing as a career. It’s important to reflect on one’s character because personal qualities and characteristics help determine trust in a relationship. Quality care follows from a relationship based on trust and the promise that nurses have made to give competent and compassionate care. Nurses need to continually assess their ability to function within the health care system and the change in staff and skill mix. Nurses have the responsibility to maintain their competence and are accountable to communicate performance deficiencies. By communicating performance deficiencies to their supervisor, educational programs may be implemented to address these needs. This continuing assessment means nurses can better guarantee they are keeping their promise to provide due care. Promise keeping and a personal belief system about human beings, environment, health, and nursing as a process forms the basis for the special relationship that nurses have with their patients. Nurses have an understanding promise to provide care to patients. The expectation of patients and their families is that nurses will be there when patients require help with their health care needs. This personal belief system is grounded in the ethical principles of respect for persons. Respect for persons means that people matter. Patients are not reduced to objects but are instead viewed in their completeness and as having inherent worth and dignity. They are unique and are in charge of their own lives. People know what they desire and what is in their own best interest. Nurses have responsibilities to promote the well being of their patients. They are to treat people, as they ought to be treated and help those that are ill. Nurses are responsible and accountable to the patients for whom they are providing care. Patients expect that nurses will act in accord with their interests, and that nurses will not abandon them whenever they need help. Both parties expect that each will be honest. Each expects to be treated with respect. When people reach out to one another, this helps to form a bond or closeness. This caring relationship fosters communication between nurses and patients. Compassion, genuine concern for the other, and humanness are important in nursing.

Understanding Management accounting and Financial Management Dissertation - 1

Understanding Management accounting and Financial Management - Dissertation Example Understanding Management accounting and Financial Management In the modern business environment, budgeting provides a feasibility analysis of the present and future needs of the capital needs and resources. The usefulness of budgeting as a management control tool is very significant. Preparing budgets is the financial basis for modern business environments as it enables organizations to establish milestones, determine the internal and external potential of the business to the managers and the investors respectively. Many companies find it difficult to prepare budgets but its importance cannot be overlooked. Budgeting can provide benchmarks for the organizations and managers as how to conduct and control the operating activities so as to meet the required target provided by the budgets. Later on, the budgets can be compared with the actual results which can provide an analysis where improvements need to be made and which area needs more controlling. Since organizations can prepare many types of budgets such as sales budget, production cost budget, expense budget and so on, cash budget remains the backbone of the other budgets. The process of budgeting can facilitate the integration of goals of employees, teams and organization as a whole. If the budget is thought about as a control system, then in context with the modern business environment, it is necessary that all levels of organization participate in the process of budgeting so that when actual results are acquired, it can be compared against the budgets and measures of improvement can be suggested. (Davidson, 2009). In case of South-guys Partnership Ltd there are many ways in which the cash budget can facilitate management of control. Since the cash budget enables to plan to the usage of cash efficiently, it shows where the company has cash surplus in a given a time period and where it has deficiency thus enabling the management to make arrangements before the deficiency actually occurs or in other case, make plans for investing the surplus cash in other profitable ventures (Shim and Siegel, 2008). This is main advantage of cash budget that South-guys Partnership Ltd can use to create a better and efficient cash flow for their organization. Thus budgeting has the capability to provide forecast for the future needs of cash or funds before the organization can actually face the crisis. It allows for planning and raising of funds at reasonable costs and terms from many different sources (Rickards, 2006). In addition to this, modern business environment requires businesses to maintain liquidity the basis of which is cash requiring companies to maintain a minimum margin of cash according to